In Macedonia photography is still insufficiently studied. To this day not enough facts are known about its arrival, its early days in this region, its development, the people who worked in this field, their ambitions, plans and desires. Unlike film and the emergence of the Manaki brothers (of whom we are proud as the pioneers of cinematography in the Balkans) photography, although older and preceding film by decades, is undeservedly treated as not as sophisticated a medium within culture and the arts.1
In this context, the year 2005 was marked as an important anniversary for Macedonian culture: 150 years of the beginning of photography in Macedonia. In fact this anniversary stems from the fact that in 1855 a Macedonian fresco-painter, Hadži Koste (Kostadin) Krstev, signed his fresco on the wall of the monastery church of St Demetrius in Veles as a “fresco-painter and photographer.”2 It appears that relatively soon after the revolutionary discovery of photography there were people in Macedonia who not only knew about the new invention and practised it, but also drew attention to it in their signatures as their profession, side by side with their basic line of work as fresco-painters. Future research will no doubt prove whether this is the date that can be taken as the beginning of Macedonian photography. Until we know otherwise, we can accept the year 1855 as the first registered piece of information referring to photography in Macedonia.
On the other hand, the emergence and development of photography globally is studied in more detail. Generally everybody agrees that the beginning of photography in the proper sense of the word (disregarding the numerous experiments with the camera obscura) is connected with the name of Nicéphore Niepce and his heliography dating from 1826.3 Since then photography has gone through many technical and technological transformations — up to the present-day full digitalization — and has spread at lightning speed throughout the world as a hobby, profession and art.
Historical Circumstances in Macedonia in the Late 19th and Early 20th Centuries
The geopolitical history of Macedonia of this period is well-known. As a territory Macedonia was still part of the Ottoman Empire, even though the military and administrative weakening of the empire aroused the interest of the Great Powers in the Balkan Peninsula to open what became known as the Eastern Question. Macedonia had a special place and significance in this sensitive region, principally because of its central situation in the Balkans, strategic communications and its economic and raw material base. In addition to the Great Powers and their conflicting interests in Macedonia, the newly-established Balkan bourgeois monarchies were soon to join in the “game.” 
“In 19th-century Macedonia, the revival and revolutionary national liberation movements developed side by side. The liberal European ideas of the French Revolution (1789) and the Commune of Paris (1871) spread throughout Macedonia and took root among the ideologists and leaders of the national liberation movement as well as the founders of the socialist movement.”4 These ideas, particularly following the Treaty of San Stefano and its revision by the Congress of Berlin (1878), were to be vehemently and vigorously welcomed, as seen in the several unsuccessful uprisings against Ottoman authority, culminating in the Ilinden Uprising (August 1903) under the “inspiring motto of the French Revolution, ‘Liberté, égalité, fraternité.’”5 Unfortunately, the Kruševo Republic proclaimed by the Ilinden insurgents lasted only fourteen days.
Following the bloody suppression of the Ilinden Uprising and the massive reprisals, the Young Turk Revolution (1908) brought some hope for a broad national and cultural autonomy. But “the fever of conquest of Macedonia” that overwhelmed the neighbouring monarchies (Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece and Montenegro) resulted first in the creation of a Balkan military alliance between these states, and sometime later in the First and Second Balkan Wars (1912-1913) fought by the same countries against Turkey. The conflict ended by Macedonia’s partition under the Treaty of Bucharest (1913), which was later verified by the Versailles Peace Conference. In fact, “what the three subsequent wars (1912-1918) had left behind was a striking apocalyptic landscape with delineated borders throughout the Macedonian land.”6
In this period Macedonia was predominantly “a land of peasants, craftsmen and small merchants. At the turn of the century, the first forerunners of the capitalist economy began to appear, albeit at a very moderate pace. A process of town expansion and growth into economic centres was also apparent.”7 At the same time, the towns were becoming the hub of educational and cultural life.
For example Bitola was an administrative and trade centre at the time and the seat of the Bitola Vilayet in 1883/84. It appears that “according to Turkish statistical data there were about ten active mektebs (primary schools), at least ten medreses (secondary schools), two Turkish lower grammar schools, a secondary military school, a military academy, a teachers’ training college and several vocational schools, etc.8 At the same time, as a result of the reinforced propaganda of the neighbouring countries, there were numerous Serbian, Greek and Bulgarian schools, educational societies and similar institutions active in Bitola.
After 1851, following the establishment of the diplomatic mission of Austria, diplomatic missions of several other European countries opened in Bitola: those of Great Britain (1851), France (1854), Russia (1860), Italy (1895), Greece, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, etc.9 “The presence of foreign diplomatic missions in Bitola was undoubtedly seen as the presence of Europe in Bitola, particularly in the everyday life and activities of the richer strata of the population. European influences were visible in architecture, music, fashion and in culture in general.”10
As far as Skopje was concerned, the first public Slavonic school was opened as early as 1836-1837. The school network towards the end of the century consisted of “nine Turkish primary schools and one secondary school with 1,400 pupils, four Exarchate schools with 1,166 pupils, two Serbian primary schools with 246 pupils, as well as one Albanian, one Romanian, one Greek and one Jewish school. Skopje also had a secondary girls’ college and a teachers’ training college.11 In this context, in view of the fact that Hadži Koste Krstev originally came from Veles, we should mention that this town was regarded as one of the more developed Macedonian centres not only of trade but also of culture. The rich Veles merchants dealt in hides and other products with Vienna, Leipzig, Pest and other European cities and sent their children to be educated in Salonica, Athens or Constantinople (now Istanbul). Veles was also known for the numerous book lovers or subscribers to various editions printed in Buda, Pest, Salonica and other cities.12
The Beginnings of Photography in Macedonia
The life and work of Hadži Koste (Kostadin) Krstev, the first known photographer in Macedonia to date, are not sufficiently studied; however, his activity as a fresco-painter is better known than his photography. From the available data we know that he was the son of a notable Veles fresco-painter, Krste Pop Trajanovik and that he learnt his trade from his father. He took over some elements from his father’s approach in the painting of figures, although other contemporary influences from the first half of the 19th century are also noticeable.
The geopolitical history of Macedonia of this period is well-known. As a territory Macedonia was still part of the Ottoman Empire, even though the military and administrative weakening of the empire aroused the interest of the Great Powers in the Balkan Peninsula to open what became known as the Eastern Question. Macedonia had a special place and significance in this sensitive region, principally because of its central situation in the Balkans, strategic communications and its economic and raw material base. In addition to the Great Powers and their conflicting interests in Macedonia, the newly-established Balkan bourgeois monarchies were soon to join in the “game.” 
“In 19th-century Macedonia, the revival and revolutionary national liberation movements developed side by side. The liberal European ideas of the French Revolution (1789) and the Commune of Paris (1871) spread throughout Macedonia and took root among the ideologists and leaders of the national liberation movement as well as the founders of the socialist movement.”4 These ideas, particularly following the Treaty of San Stefano and its revision by the Congress of Berlin (1878), were to be vehemently and vigorously welcomed, as seen in the several unsuccessful uprisings against Ottoman authority, culminating in the Ilinden Uprising (August 1903) under the “inspiring motto of the French Revolution, ‘Liberté, égalité, fraternité.’”5 Unfortunately, the Kruševo Republic proclaimed by the Ilinden insurgents lasted only fourteen days.
Following the bloody suppression of the Ilinden Uprising and the massive reprisals, the Young Turk Revolution (1908) brought some hope for a broad national and cultural autonomy. But “the fever of conquest of Macedonia” that overwhelmed the neighbouring monarchies (Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece and Montenegro) resulted first in the creation of a Balkan military alliance between these states, and sometime later in the First and Second Balkan Wars (1912-1913) fought by the same countries against Turkey. The conflict ended by Macedonia’s partition under the Treaty of Bucharest (1913), which was later verified by the Versailles Peace Conference. In fact, “what the three subsequent wars (1912-1918) had left behind was a striking apocalyptic landscape with delineated borders throughout the Macedonian land.”6
In this period Macedonia was predominantly “a land of peasants, craftsmen and small merchants. At the turn of the century, the first forerunners of the capitalist economy began to appear, albeit at a very moderate pace. A process of town expansion and growth into economic centres was also apparent.”7 At the same time, the towns were becoming the hub of educational and cultural life.For example Bitola was an administrative and trade centre at the time and the seat of the Bitola Vilayet in 1883/84. It appears that “according to Turkish statistical data there were about ten active mektebs (primary schools), at least ten medreses (secondary schools), two Turkish lower grammar schools, a secondary military school, a military academy, a teachers’ training college and several vocational schools, etc.8 At the same time, as a result of the reinforced propaganda of the neighbouring countries, there were numerous Serbian, Greek and Bulgarian schools, educational societies and similar institutions active in Bitola.
After 1851, following the establishment of the diplomatic mission of Austria, diplomatic missions of several other European countries opened in Bitola: those of Great Britain (1851), France (1854), Russia (1860), Italy (1895), Greece, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, etc.9 “The presence of foreign diplomatic missions in Bitola was undoubtedly seen as the presence of Europe in Bitola, particularly in the everyday life and activities of the richer strata of the population. European influences were visible in architecture, music, fashion and in culture in general.”10
As far as Skopje was concerned, the first public Slavonic school was opened as early as 1836-1837. The school network towards the end of the century consisted of “nine Turkish primary schools and one secondary school with 1,400 pupils, four Exarchate schools with 1,166 pupils, two Serbian primary schools with 246 pupils, as well as one Albanian, one Romanian, one Greek and one Jewish school. Skopje also had a secondary girls’ college and a teachers’ training college.11 In this context, in view of the fact that Hadži Koste Krstev originally came from Veles, we should mention that this town was regarded as one of the more developed Macedonian centres not only of trade but also of culture. The rich Veles merchants dealt in hides and other products with Vienna, Leipzig, Pest and other European cities and sent their children to be educated in Salonica, Athens or Constantinople (now Istanbul). Veles was also known for the numerous book lovers or subscribers to various editions printed in Buda, Pest, Salonica and other cities.12
The Beginnings of Photography in Macedonia
The life and work of Hadži Koste (Kostadin) Krstev, the first known photographer in Macedonia to date, are not sufficiently studied; however, his activity as a fresco-painter is better known than his photography. From the available data we know that he was the son of a notable Veles fresco-painter, Krste Pop Trajanovik and that he learnt his trade from his father. He took over some elements from his father’s approach in the painting of figures, although other contemporary influences from the first half of the 19th century are also noticeable.
There is no data about the year of Krstev’s birth, although according to the testimony of Gorgi Zografski (another prominent fresco-painter from Veles) 1894 is usually taken as the year of his death.
From what we know he worked as a painter (icon- and fresco-painting) from 1847 to 1885 in the regions of Veles, Kumanovo and Sveti Nikole. He is also known to have been active in Serbia (Devič and Prokuplje). Together with Gorgi Zografski he worked in the company of Andon Kitanov (1829-1914), a painter, woodcarver and architect.
Regrettably, the only piece of information referring to his activity as a photographer is his signature on the wall of the church of St Demetrius in Veles.13
As far as the early years of photography in the second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century in Macedonia are concerned, some facts are established. For example in Veles we know of the photographic activity of Dime Gočev-Bickin and also that the photographic studio of Damaskin Manušev was opened in 1894.14
Bitola, the city of the Manaki brothers, is believed to have “had a number of photographers with their own studios... in the last decades of the 19th century, such as Atanas [should be Anastas, author’s note] Lozančev, Lazar (Risto) Kermele, Tegu and others. The number of photographers grew particularly in the early 20th century with the opening of the studios of the Manaki brothers, Sotir Pinza, Linara, Papakoč, Topla [should be Tonka, author’s note] Nacka, D. Šožu, Gorgi Moreno, and many others.”15 The photo studio of the brothers Janaki and Milton Manaki (who began working as photographers in Ioannina as early as 1898) opened in Bitola in 1905. We should also mention the imposing body of the brothers’ photographic work, which is still insufficiently known to the public although it includes 18,513 negatives and 17,854 prints!
There is no doubt that the photographic activity of the Manaki brothers — in both quantity and quality — contributed to the swift development and increased interest in photography not only in Bitola but also in the whole of Macedonia. Furthermore, their contribution to the development of photography in the region was by no means negligible, since their work was also connected with, among others, Bulgaria, Romania and Serbia.
From the 1920s onwards photography was no longer a “miracle” in Macedonia but an everyday occurrence and also a medium for artistic expression.16
Bearing in mind all these facts, we can safely assume that in spite of the extremely complex historical and economic situation of the region, the emergence and development of photography in Macedonia did not lag behind other neighbouring countries. There is no doubt that the first people to photograph the Balkans were travel photographers, who came from different European countries (France, Italy, Austria, Germany...). Some of the distinguished names included Josif Kapilieri, Elias Armin, Guillaume Lejean, Bauer and Gelch.
In the territory of the countries of the former Yugoslavia photography appeared for the first time in Zagreb in 1840 with the activity of the photographer Novaković. Soon afterwards, Anastas Jovanović, a painter and printer, introduced photography in Belgrade. Photography in Ljubljana is connected with the work of Janez Puhar (1847). The first photo-club, one of the oldest in this part of Europe, was founded in Zagreb in 1892.
The first known photograph in Bulgaria was made by a travel photographer in 1851. Indigenous Bulgarian photographers appeared sometime later, including Georgi Dančov, Toma Hitrov, Nikola Hitrov, Petar Todorov Fakirov and Ivan Zografov.17
Filippos Margaritis18 opened the first photographic studio in Athens, Greece, in 1849. Photography became especially popular in the early 20th century and some of the more important names from this period included Eli Seraidari (better known as Neli), Stemos Kasimatis, Spiros Melitis and Voula Papaioannou.
From what we know he worked as a painter (icon- and fresco-painting) from 1847 to 1885 in the regions of Veles, Kumanovo and Sveti Nikole. He is also known to have been active in Serbia (Devič and Prokuplje). Together with Gorgi Zografski he worked in the company of Andon Kitanov (1829-1914), a painter, woodcarver and architect.
Regrettably, the only piece of information referring to his activity as a photographer is his signature on the wall of the church of St Demetrius in Veles.13
As far as the early years of photography in the second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century in Macedonia are concerned, some facts are established. For example in Veles we know of the photographic activity of Dime Gočev-Bickin and also that the photographic studio of Damaskin Manušev was opened in 1894.14
Bitola, the city of the Manaki brothers, is believed to have “had a number of photographers with their own studios... in the last decades of the 19th century, such as Atanas [should be Anastas, author’s note] Lozančev, Lazar (Risto) Kermele, Tegu and others. The number of photographers grew particularly in the early 20th century with the opening of the studios of the Manaki brothers, Sotir Pinza, Linara, Papakoč, Topla [should be Tonka, author’s note] Nacka, D. Šožu, Gorgi Moreno, and many others.”15 The photo studio of the brothers Janaki and Milton Manaki (who began working as photographers in Ioannina as early as 1898) opened in Bitola in 1905. We should also mention the imposing body of the brothers’ photographic work, which is still insufficiently known to the public although it includes 18,513 negatives and 17,854 prints!
There is no doubt that the photographic activity of the Manaki brothers — in both quantity and quality — contributed to the swift development and increased interest in photography not only in Bitola but also in the whole of Macedonia. Furthermore, their contribution to the development of photography in the region was by no means negligible, since their work was also connected with, among others, Bulgaria, Romania and Serbia.
From the 1920s onwards photography was no longer a “miracle” in Macedonia but an everyday occurrence and also a medium for artistic expression.16
Bearing in mind all these facts, we can safely assume that in spite of the extremely complex historical and economic situation of the region, the emergence and development of photography in Macedonia did not lag behind other neighbouring countries. There is no doubt that the first people to photograph the Balkans were travel photographers, who came from different European countries (France, Italy, Austria, Germany...). Some of the distinguished names included Josif Kapilieri, Elias Armin, Guillaume Lejean, Bauer and Gelch.
In the territory of the countries of the former Yugoslavia photography appeared for the first time in Zagreb in 1840 with the activity of the photographer Novaković. Soon afterwards, Anastas Jovanović, a painter and printer, introduced photography in Belgrade. Photography in Ljubljana is connected with the work of Janez Puhar (1847). The first photo-club, one of the oldest in this part of Europe, was founded in Zagreb in 1892.
The first known photograph in Bulgaria was made by a travel photographer in 1851. Indigenous Bulgarian photographers appeared sometime later, including Georgi Dančov, Toma Hitrov, Nikola Hitrov, Petar Todorov Fakirov and Ivan Zografov.17
Filippos Margaritis18 opened the first photographic studio in Athens, Greece, in 1849. Photography became especially popular in the early 20th century and some of the more important names from this period included Eli Seraidari (better known as Neli), Stemos Kasimatis, Spiros Melitis and Voula Papaioannou.
In conclusion, special attention should be paid to the fact that we owe this photographic heritage almost entirely to the efforts, enthusiasm and archives of the Macedonian Centre of Photography and to Robert Jankulovski personally as its founder and manager.
[Notes]
1. This is so in spite of the fact that the Manaki brothers were in effect photographers.
2. The full inscription on the church’s southern wall reads as follows: “Sej obitel obnovisja vo 1855 izobrazi H. Koste zugraf i fotograf” [according to Dimitar Kornakov in Makedonski manastiri (Macedonian Monasteries), Matica Makedonska, Skopje, 1995, p. 207].
3. When dealing with the subject of the appearance of photography in the world, the year 1839 and the achievements of Daguerre and Herschel in this field are most often quoted in the Macedonian literature. Around the world, however, the prevalent view is that Niepce and his 1826 heliography takes precedence (a landscape shot through a window of his home) as the first genuine and permanent photograph.
4. Vera Veskovik-Vangeli, Ph.D., “Fotozapisot na Avgust Leon za Makedonija vo 1913 godina (The Photo Record of Auguste Léon of Macedonia in 1913),” in: Makedonija vo 1913 (Macedonia in 1913) (catalogue), Museum of the City of Skopje, 2001, p. 21.
5. Ibid., p. 22.
6. Ibid., p. 25.
7. Ibid., p. 19.
8. Ivan Jolevski and Marija Kokalevska-Taleva, “Razvojot na prosvetata vo Bitola (The Development of Education in Bitola),” Tvoreštvoto na brakata Manaki (The Work of the Manaki Brothers), Archives of Macedonia and Matica Makedonska, Skopje, 1996, p. 352.
9. See Jovan D. Kočankovski, M.Sc., “Stranski diplomatski pretstavništva vo Bitola (Foreign Diplomatic Missions in Bitola),” Tvoreštvoto na brakata Manaki, Archives of Macedonia and Matica Makedonska, Skopje, 1996, pp. 167-182.
10. Ibid., p. 182.
11. Makedonija vo 1913 (catalogue), Museum of the City of Skopje, Skopje, 2001, p. 39.
12. See Nikifor Smilevski, Hadži Koste, zograf i fotograf (Hadži Koste, Fresco-painter and Photographer), Kinopis, No. 6, Year IV, 1992, Skopje, p. 84.
13. For more on Hadži Koste Krstev see: Hadži Koste, zograf i fotograf, Kinopis, No. 6, Year IV, 1992, Skopje, p. 84-86; Antonie Nikolovski, “Umetnosta na XIX vek vo Makedonija (The Art of the 19th Century in Macedonia)”, Kulturno nasledstvo na SR Makedonija (The Cultural Heritage of SR Macedonia), Republic’s Institute for the Protection of Cultural Monuments, Skopje, 1984; Antonie Nikolovski, Makedonskite zografi od krajot na XIX i početokot na XX vek (Macedonian Fresco-painters from the End of the 19th and the Beginning of the 20th Century), Republic’s Institute for the Protection of Cultural Monuments, Skopje, 1984.
14. Makedonija vo 1913 (catalogue), p. 86.
15. Aleksandar Krstevski-Koška, “Fotografskata dejnost na brakata Manaki (The Photographic Work of the Manaki Brothers)”, Tvoreštvoto na brakata Manaki, Archives of Macedonia and Matica Makedonska, Skopje, 1996, p. 68.
16. We should mention in this context Sonja Abadžieva’s view that “we owe the first one-man show of photographs (on the basis of facts available to date) to Cvetko Ivanov (1908-1984),” but she does not quote the source or document for making this assumption; so it will have to be taken with a reserve. See Ekstenzija na kadarot (The Extension of the Frame) (catalogue), Bitola Art Gallery, 1998.
17. For more on this subject see: Petar Boev, Fotografsko izkustvo v B’lgarija (1856-1944) [Photographic Art in Bulgaria (1856-1944)] , Septemvri Državno Izdatelstvo, Sofia, 1983.
18. Filippos Margaritis (1810-1892) was born in Smyrna (now Izmir). In 1821 he spent some time in Rome, where he studied painting. He worked as a teacher in an Art School in Athens.
1. This is so in spite of the fact that the Manaki brothers were in effect photographers.
2. The full inscription on the church’s southern wall reads as follows: “Sej obitel obnovisja vo 1855 izobrazi H. Koste zugraf i fotograf” [according to Dimitar Kornakov in Makedonski manastiri (Macedonian Monasteries), Matica Makedonska, Skopje, 1995, p. 207].
3. When dealing with the subject of the appearance of photography in the world, the year 1839 and the achievements of Daguerre and Herschel in this field are most often quoted in the Macedonian literature. Around the world, however, the prevalent view is that Niepce and his 1826 heliography takes precedence (a landscape shot through a window of his home) as the first genuine and permanent photograph.
4. Vera Veskovik-Vangeli, Ph.D., “Fotozapisot na Avgust Leon za Makedonija vo 1913 godina (The Photo Record of Auguste Léon of Macedonia in 1913),” in: Makedonija vo 1913 (Macedonia in 1913) (catalogue), Museum of the City of Skopje, 2001, p. 21.
5. Ibid., p. 22.
6. Ibid., p. 25.
7. Ibid., p. 19.
8. Ivan Jolevski and Marija Kokalevska-Taleva, “Razvojot na prosvetata vo Bitola (The Development of Education in Bitola),” Tvoreštvoto na brakata Manaki (The Work of the Manaki Brothers), Archives of Macedonia and Matica Makedonska, Skopje, 1996, p. 352.
9. See Jovan D. Kočankovski, M.Sc., “Stranski diplomatski pretstavništva vo Bitola (Foreign Diplomatic Missions in Bitola),” Tvoreštvoto na brakata Manaki, Archives of Macedonia and Matica Makedonska, Skopje, 1996, pp. 167-182.
10. Ibid., p. 182.
11. Makedonija vo 1913 (catalogue), Museum of the City of Skopje, Skopje, 2001, p. 39.
12. See Nikifor Smilevski, Hadži Koste, zograf i fotograf (Hadži Koste, Fresco-painter and Photographer), Kinopis, No. 6, Year IV, 1992, Skopje, p. 84.
13. For more on Hadži Koste Krstev see: Hadži Koste, zograf i fotograf, Kinopis, No. 6, Year IV, 1992, Skopje, p. 84-86; Antonie Nikolovski, “Umetnosta na XIX vek vo Makedonija (The Art of the 19th Century in Macedonia)”, Kulturno nasledstvo na SR Makedonija (The Cultural Heritage of SR Macedonia), Republic’s Institute for the Protection of Cultural Monuments, Skopje, 1984; Antonie Nikolovski, Makedonskite zografi od krajot na XIX i početokot na XX vek (Macedonian Fresco-painters from the End of the 19th and the Beginning of the 20th Century), Republic’s Institute for the Protection of Cultural Monuments, Skopje, 1984.
14. Makedonija vo 1913 (catalogue), p. 86.
15. Aleksandar Krstevski-Koška, “Fotografskata dejnost na brakata Manaki (The Photographic Work of the Manaki Brothers)”, Tvoreštvoto na brakata Manaki, Archives of Macedonia and Matica Makedonska, Skopje, 1996, p. 68.
16. We should mention in this context Sonja Abadžieva’s view that “we owe the first one-man show of photographs (on the basis of facts available to date) to Cvetko Ivanov (1908-1984),” but she does not quote the source or document for making this assumption; so it will have to be taken with a reserve. See Ekstenzija na kadarot (The Extension of the Frame) (catalogue), Bitola Art Gallery, 1998.
17. For more on this subject see: Petar Boev, Fotografsko izkustvo v B’lgarija (1856-1944) [Photographic Art in Bulgaria (1856-1944)] , Septemvri Državno Izdatelstvo, Sofia, 1983.
18. Filippos Margaritis (1810-1892) was born in Smyrna (now Izmir). In 1821 he spent some time in Rome, where he studied painting. He worked as a teacher in an Art School in Athens.
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